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抽签与民主:释放对民主理念实现方式的想象力(一)
关键字: 抽签民主共和古罗马权力斗争代议制民主注 释/ 446
1 在本文集中,“抽签”是外延比较宽的概念,“抽选”是外延比较窄的概念,专指单纯用抽签的方式选取官员。本文的最后两节“抽签理论:从边缘到主流”和“抽签实践:遍地开花”,以《西方民主一个新动向:抽签的理论与实践》发表在《武汉大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》第70卷第4期2017年7月,此处发表的是全文,特此说明并致谢。
2 Bernard Manin, The Principles of Representative Government (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 79.
3 例如,美国18岁男女的普选权直到1971年才实现;瑞士妇女的普选权直到1990年才实现。
4 Mogens Herman Hansen, The Tradition of Ancient Greek Democracy and Its Importance for Modern Democracy (Copenhagen: The Royal Danish Academy of Science and Letters, 2005), p. 23.
5 约瑟夫·熊彼特(吴良健译),《资本主义、社会主义与民主》(北京:商务印书馆,1999年),第360-413页。6 C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1956).
7 John H. Summers, “The Deciders,” New York Times, May 142006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/14/books/review/14summers.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.
8 Elmer Eric Schattschneider, The Semisovereign People: A Realist's Viewof Democracy in America (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960), pp.30-36.
9 G. William Domhoff, Who Rules America? (Englewood Cliffs,
10 N.J: Prentice-Hall, 1967).
11 Theodore J. Lowi, The End of Liberalism (New York: W. W. Norton, 1969).
12Hanspeter Kriesi, et al., New Social Movements in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis (London: UCL Press, 1995); J. Craig Jenkins and Bert Klandermans, eds., The Politics of Social Protest: Comparative Perspectives on States and Social movements (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995); Michael P. Hanagan, et al., Challenging Authority: The Historical Study of Contentious Politics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Charles Tilly, Social Movements, 1768-2004 (Boulder: Paradigm, 2004), Chapter 4 “Twentieth-Century Expansion and Transformation,” pp. 65-94.13Russell J. Dalton and Manfred Kuechler, eds., Challenging the Political Order: New Social and Political Movements in Western Democracies (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990); Terry Nichols Clark and Michael Rempel, eds., Citizen Politics in Post-Industrial Societies (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1997).
14Claus Offe, “New Social Movements: Challenging the Boundaries of Institutional Politics,” Social Research, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Winter 1985), pp. 826.
15Steven M. Buechler, “New Social Movement Theories,” The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 36, No. 3 (Summer, 1995), pp. 441-464.
16Graeme Duncan and Steven Lukes, “The New Democracy,” Political Studies, Vol. XI, No. 2 (1963), pp. 156-177.
17 Samuel Brittan, "The Economic Contradictions of Democracy," BritishJournal of Political Science, Vol. 5, No. 2 (April 1975), 129-159; Allan H.Meltzer and Scott F. Richard, "Why Government Grows (and Grows) in a Democracy," Public Interest, No. 52 (Summer 1978), pp. 111-118.
18 Samuel P. Huntington, “The Democratic Distemper,” Public Interest, No. 41 (Fall 1975), p. 11.
19 Michel Crozier, Samuel P. Huntington, and Joji Watanuki, The Crisis Of Democracy: Report on the Governability of Democracies to the Trilateral Commission (New York: New York University Press, 1975).
20 Samuel P. Huntington, “The Democratic Distemper,” Public Interest,No. 41 (Fall 1975), pp. 36-38.[1] David Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
21Harvey Feigenbaum, Jeffrey Henig, Chris Hamnett, Shrinking the State: The Political Underpinnings of Privatization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).22Joel D. Wolfe, Power and Privatization: Choice and Competition in the Remaking of British Democracy (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1996), Chapter 8 “The Privatization of Democracy,” pp. 171-185.
23Lisa Duggan, The Twilight of Equality: Neoliberalism, Cultural Politics, and the Attack on Democracy (Boston: Beacon Press, 2003), Chapter 1 “Downsizing Democracy,” pp. 1-21.
24Wendy Brown, Undoing the Demos: Neoliberalism's Stealth Revolution (New York: Zone Books, 2015), Chapter 1 “Undoing the Demos,” pp. 17-46.
25Jason Hickel, “Neoliberalism and the End of Democracy,” in Simon Springer, Kean Birch and Julie MacLeavy, eds., The Handbook of Neoliberalism (New York: Routledge, 2016), pp. 142-152.
26Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” National Interest (Summer 1989), pp. 3–18.
27Thomas Carothers, “The End of the Transition Paradigm,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 13, No.1 (2002), pp. 5-21.
28Fareed Zakaria, “The Rise of Illiberal Democracy,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 76, No. 6 (Nov/Dec 1997), pp. 22-43.
29The Economist, “What’s Gone Wong with Democracy,” March 1, 2014, http://www.economist.com/news/essays/21596796-democracy-was-most-successful-political-idea-20th-century-why-has-it-run-trouble-and-what-can-be-do.
30 这七篇文章后被收入由美国前国务卿赖斯作序的书,见Larry Diamond, Marc F. Plattner, Democracy in Decline? (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015).
31王绍光,《民主四讲》(北京:三联书店,2008)。
32拉尼•吉尼尔,“超越选主:反思作为陌生权贵的政治代表”,见王绍光主编、欧树军译《选主评判:对当代西方民主的反思》(北京:北京大学出版社,2014年), 第87-134页。
33 Pew Research Center, “U.S. voter turnout trails most developed countries,” August 2, 2016, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/08/02/u-s-voter-turnout-trails-most-developed-countries/. 美国2016年总统大选的投票率为59.7%,见The United States Elections Project, “2016 November General Election Turnout Rates,” http://www.electproject.org/2016g.
34The United States Elections Project, “National General Election VEP Turnout Rates, 1789-Present,” http://www.electproject.org/national-1789-present.
35Mike Maciag “Voter Turnout Plummeting in Local Elections,” Governing the State and Locals, October 2014, http://www.governing.com/topics/politics/gov-voter-turnout-municipal-elections.html#graph; Daniel Denvir, “Voter Turnout in U.S. Mayoral Elections Is Pathetic, but It Wasn't Always This Way,” Atlantic Citylab, May 22, 2015,http://www.citylab.com/politics/2015/05/mayoral-election-voting-turnout/393737/.
36英国最近的例子见Daniel Wainwright, “Council Elections: Five Ways to Get More People to Vote,” BBC News, May 3, 2016, http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-36047612.
37Mark Gray and Miki Caul, “Declining Voter Turnout in Advanced Industrial Democracies, 1950 to 1997: The Effects of Declining Group Mobilization,” Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 33 No. 9 (November 2000), pp. 1091-1122; Mark N. Franklin, Voter Turnout and the Dynamics of Electoral Competition in Established Democracies since 1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); World Bank, World Development Report 2017: Governance and the Law (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2017), p. 228.
38 王绍光,《祛魅与超越:反思民主、自由、平等、公民社会》(北京:中信出版社,2010年),第212-256页。
39雅克•巴尔赞(林华译),《从黎明到衰落:西方文化生活五百年》(北京:世界知识出版社,2002年),第790-791页。
40Elmer Eric Schattschneider, Party Government (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1942), p. 1.
41David Robertson, A Theory of Party Competition (London: Wiley, 1976); Richard S. Katz, A Theory of Parties and Electoral Systems (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980); Seymour Martin Lipset, “What are parties for?” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 7, No. 1(1996), pp. 169-175.
42Pew Research Center for the People & Press, “Trend in Party Identification: 1939 – 2012,” June 1, 2012, http://www.people-press.org/2012/06/01/trend-in-party-identification-1939-2012/.
43Gallup, “Party Affiliation: Trend since 2004,” February 2, 2017, http://www.gallup.com/poll/15370/party-affiliation.aspx?version=print#top.
44见 “List of third party performances in United States elections,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_third_party_performances_in_United_States_elections.
45Ingrid van Biezen, Peter Mair and Thomas Poguntke, “Going, going, . . . gone? The Decline of Party Membership in Contemporary Europe,” European Journal of Political Research, Vol. 51, No 1 (2012), pp. 24-56.
46The Economist, “What is Wrong with Democracy?” The Economist, March 1, 2014, http://www.economist.com/news/essays/21596796-democracy-was-most-successful-political-idea-20th-century-why-has-it-run-trouble-and-what-can-be-do.
47Peter Mair, Ruling the Void: The Hollowing of Western Democracy (London: Verso, 2013).
48Zoltan L. Hajnal, America’s Uneven Democracy: Race, Turnout, and Representation in City Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
49Larry M. Bartels, Unequal Democracy: The Political Economy of the New Gilded Age (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University, 2008).
50Martin Gilens and Benjamin I. Page, “Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens,” Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 12, No. 3 (September 2014), p. 565
51Jeffrey A. Winters and Benjamin I. Page, “Oligarchy in the United States?” Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 7, No. 4 (December 2009), pp. 731-751; Jeffrey A. Winters, Oligarchy (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 211-253.
52 Mogens Herman Hansen, The Tradition of Ancient Greek Democracy and Its Importance for Modern Democracy (Copenhagen: The Royal Danish Academy of Science and Letters, 2005), p. 23.
Paul Cartledge, Democracy: A Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).
53Paul Cartledge, “Ancient Greeks would not recognise our ‘democracy’ – they’d see an ‘oligarchy’,” The Conversation, June 3, 2016, http://theconversation.com/ancient-greeks-would-not-recognise-our-democracy-theyd-see-an-oligarchy-60277.
54Roberto Stefan Foa and Yascha Mounk, “The Danger of Deconsolidation,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 27, No. 3 (July 2016), pp. 5-17; Roberto Stefan Foa and Yascha Mounk, “The Signs of Deconsolidation,” Journal of Democracy,
Vol. 28, No. 1 (January 2017), pp. 5-15.
55王绍光主编、欧树军译《选主评判:对当代西方民主的反思》(北京:北京大学出版社,2014年)。
56J. E. Meade, Efficiency, Equality and the Ownership of Property (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1964).
57Carole Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970).
58Stanghton Lynd, “The New Radicals and ‘Participatory Democracy’” Dissent, Vol. 12, No. 3 (July 1965), pp. 1-10; Macpherson, C.B. The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977).
59 Joseph M. Bessette, "Deliberative Democracy: The Majority Principle in Republican Government", in Robert A. Goldwin and William A. Schambra, eds., How Democratic is the Constitution? (Washington, D.C.: AEI Press, 1980), pp. 102–116; Joshua Cohen (1989). “Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy”, in Alan Harmlin and Philip Petit, eds., The Good Polity (Oxford: Blackwell 1989)
60 Benjamin R. Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984).
61Robert A. Dahl, A Preface to Economic Democracy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985). 这表明达尔的民主观点发生了变化,认识到多元民主无力解决经济不平等带来的政治不平等问题,亦见 David Held, Models of Democracy, 3rd edition (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2006), pp. 169-172.
62 Christa Daryl Lowder Slaton, Televote: Expanding Citizen Participation in the Quantum Age, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1990, http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/10119/2/uhm_phd_9030581_r.pdf; James H. Snider, “Democracy On-line: Tomorrow's Electronic Electorate,” The Futurist, Vol. 28, No. 5 (September-October 1994), pp. 15–19; Barry N. Hague and Brian D. Loader, Digital Democracy: Discourse and Decision Making in the Information Age (London: Routledge, 1999).
63Takis Fotopoulos, Towards an Inclusive Democracy (London: Cassell, 1996).
64Aristotle (Translated by Frederic G. Kenyon), On the Constitution of Athens (London: George Bell and Sons, 1891).
65Anonymous, Election by Lot the Only Remedy for Political Corruption (Montréal: Dawson Brothers, 1884).
66Arthur M. Wolfson, “The Ballot and Other Forms of Voting in the Italian Communes,” The American Historical Review, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Oct., 1899), pp. 1-21; A. H. J. Greenidge, A Handbook of Greek Constitutional History (London: Macmillan and Co. Ltd., 1896), pp. 163-164.
67 G.F. Schomann, Athenian Constitutional History: As Represented in Grote's History of Greece (London: James Paeker and Co., 1878), p. 81; Anonymous, Election by Lot the Only Remedy for Political Corruption (Montréal:DawsonBrothers, 1884), pp. 7, 14, 20; James Wycliffe Headlam, Election by Lot at Athens (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1891), p. 36.
68 C. L. R. James, "Every Cook Can Govern: A Study of Democracy in Ancient Greece, Its Meaning forToday," Correspondence, Vol. 2,No. 12 (June 1956), pp. 1-32.
69 在1917年十月革命前的几周,列宁曾说过这样一段话:“我们知道,不是随便哪一个粗工和厨娘都能马上参加国家管理的。在这一点上,我们同立宪民主党人,同布列什柯夫斯卡娅,同策列铁里是意见一致的。我们同这些公民不一致的地方是我们要求立刻破除这样一种偏见,似乎只有富人或者富人家庭出身的官吏才能管理国家,才能担任日常管理工作。我们要求由觉悟的工人和士兵来领导学习管理国家的工作,并且要求立刻开始这样做,即立刻开始吸引一切劳动者、一切贫民来学习这一工作”。见列宁,“布尔什维克能保持国家政权吗?”(1917年9月底—10月1日〔14日〕),《列宁全集》第32卷(北京:人民出版社,1985年),第306-307页。
70 到2017年初,谷歌学术搜索显示,这篇论文共被引用12次。
71 Mabel Lang, “Allotment byTokens,” Historia: Zeitschrift für AlteGeschichte, Bd. 8, H. 1 (Jan., 1959), pp. 80-89; Vilhelm Aubert, “Chance inSocial Affairs,” Inquiry, Vol. 2, No.1-4 (1959), pp. 1-24.
72 Robert A. Dahl, After the Revolution? Authority in a GoodSociety (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970), pp. 122-125.
73 谷歌学术搜索显示,该书在达尔所有著作中引用率几乎是最低的,且大多数引用发生在1990年以后。
74Robert A. Dahl, “On RemovingCertain Impediments to Democracy in the United States,” Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 92, No. 1 (Spring, 1977), p. 17;
75Robert A. Dahl, “Sketches for a Democratic Utopia,” Scandinavian Political Studies, Vol. 10, No. 3 (1987), pp. 204-206;
76Robert A. Dahl, “Political Equality in the Coming Century,” in Keith Dowding, James Hughes, and Helen Margetts, eds., Challengesto Democracy: Ideas, Involvement, and Institutions (London: Palgrave,2001), p. 15; Robert A. Dahl, “Democratic Polities in Advances Countries:
Success and Challenge,” in Atilio A. Boron, ed., New Worldwide Hegemony: Alternatives for Change and Social Movements
(Buenos Aires: CLACSO, 2004), pp. 63-65.Robert A. Dahl, Democracy and Its Critics (New Haven:Yale University Press, 1989), p. 340;
77 20世纪90年代,本人在耶鲁大学政治系任教时,曾与达尔教授讨论过抽签的利弊。他当时仍持这种看法。
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本文仅代表作者个人观点。
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